为您找到与英汉口译中文化因素的传达 语言文化特征相关的共200个结果:
摘要:英汉口译是通过口头表达,将信息由英语转换成汉语的语言交际行为。英汉口译所涉及的因素颇多,其中文化因素的传达尤为重要。不同的文化背景决定了语言的表达方式,因此,译者在口译过程中要采取转换、解释等技巧将文化内涵传达给听众。本文主要探讨口译过程中文化因素传达的内涵、技巧及意义。
关键词:英汉口译;文化因素;传达;文化背景
摘要:英汉口译是通过口头表达,将信息由英语转换成汉语的语言交际行为。英汉口译所涉及的因素颇多,其中文化因素的传达尤为重要。不同的文化背景决定了语言的表达方式,因此,译者在口译过程中要采取转换、解释等技巧将文化内涵传达给听众。本文主要探讨口译过程中文化因素传达的内涵、技巧及意义。
关键词:英汉口译;文化因素;传达;文化背景
Abstract:E-C interpretation is a kind of communicative behavior in which information in English is converted into Chinese by oral expressions. Among the factors in E-C interpretation, the most important one is cultural factor. Different cultural backgrounds determine the form of expression. So, during E-C interpretation, the interpreter should have to pass on the cultural connotation to thelisteners by explanation or conversion. This article aims to explore the connotations, techniques as well as its importance of transmission for cultural factors in E-C interpretation.
Key words:E-C interpretation; cultural factors; transmission; cultural background
1Introduction
It goes without saying that both English and Chinese languages are endowed with profound culture. Language is an important carrier of culture. Different Languages reflect different cultures. What’s language? “In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of a people, and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking” And what about culture? According to the definitions of sociologists and anthropologists, the term “Culture” refers to the total pattern of beliefs, customs, institutions, objects, and techniques that characterize the life of a human community. (Deng Yanchang, Liu Renqing, 1989). Language is a very special component of culture. As a symbolic system of human communication, language is part of the conventional culture. Most of the languages are contained within their cultures, and a society’s language is an aspect of its culture. There is a dialectical relationship between language and culture. Every language is part of a culture and every culture is part of a language. As such, language can’t but serve and reflect cultural needs. The two are intricately interwoven such that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture. Thus, the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. Culture is really an integral part of the interaction between language and thought. Cultural patterns, customs, and ways of life are expressed in language. For example, Eskimo tribes commonly have as many as seven different words for snow to distinguish among different types of snow. In African cultures of the equatorial forests, there is no word at all for snow.
We shall not go further into the relationship between language and culture. What needs to be stressed here is that the two interact, and that understanding of one requires understanding of the other.
What we call “cultural factor” refers to beliefs, customs, social systems, institutions, objects, techniques, ways of thinking, family patterns, etc that comprise the culture. The criteria of interpretation differs from person to person, which, in general sense, are quickness, exactness and fluency. E-C interpretation covers broad contents in which the transmission of cultural factor is not only important but also can’t be ignored.
2The transmission of the connotation of cultural factors
Just as we mentioned above, cultural factors refer to beliefs, customs, social systems, institutions, objects, techniques, ways of thinking, family patterns, etc that comprise the culture. So, it’s obvious that the transmission of the connotation of cultural factors is to pass on what comprise the culture stemmed from the English-speaking countries to the listeners in E-C interpretation.
It goes without saying that both English and Chinese languages are endowed with profound culture. Language is an important carrier of culture. Different Languages reflect different cultures. What’s language? “In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of a people, and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking” And what about culture? According to the definitions of sociologists and anthropologists, the term “Culture” refers to the total pattern of beliefs, customs, institutions, objects, and techniques that characterize the life of a human community. (Deng Yanchang, Liu Renqing, 1989). Language is a very special component of culture. As a symbolic system of human communication, language is part of the conventional culture. Most of the languages are contained within their cultures, and a society’s language is an aspect of its culture. There is a dialectical relationship between language and culture. Every language is part of a culture and every culture is part of a language. As such, language can’t but serve and reflect cultural needs. The two are intricately interwoven such that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture. Thus, the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. Culture is really an integral part of the interaction between language and thought. Cultural patterns, customs, and ways of life are expressed in language. For example, Eskimo tribes commonly have as many as seven different words for snow to distinguish among different types of snow. In African cultures of the equatorial forests, there is no word at all for snow.
We shall not go further into the relationship between language and culture. What needs to be stressed here is that the two interact, and that understanding of one requires understanding of the other.
What we call “cultural factor” refers to beliefs, customs, social systems, institutions, objects, techniques, ways of thinking, family patterns, etc that comprise the culture. The criteria of interpretation differs from person to person, which, in general sense, are quickness, exactness and fluency. E-C interpretation covers broad contents in which the transmission of cultural factor is not only important but also can’t be ignored.
2The transmission of the connotation of cultural factors
Just as we mentioned above, cultural factors refer to beliefs, customs, social systems, institutions, objects, techniques, ways of thinking, family patterns, etc that comprise the culture. So, it’s obvious that the transmission of the connotation of cultural factors is to pass on what comprise the culture stemmed from the English-speaking countries to the listeners in E-C interpretation.
(1)To be an interpreter, what he or she should convey in E-C interpretation? Maybe someone would say “I’ll interpret what he or she says” The answer to the above question may be right or wrong. For example, a foreigner says “How about having supper together tonight? Go Dutch.” If it is interpreted as:“今晚一起吃饭如何?去荷兰,”the Chineselisteners might think that you would invite him or her to have supper in Dutch or in a certain restaurant named Dutch. Here “Go Dutch” means “pay your bill yourself ‘not’ to have dinner in Dutch or a Dutch Restaurant.” The example reflects one kind of characteristics of culture. On the contrary, if someone in China invites you to have dinner with him or her, he/she will pay the bill. This phenomenon is called cultural difference. There are plenty of examples to show the cultural difference between English and Chinese. Chinese has a complex system of kinship terms. It distinguishes“外甥、侄子、堂兄、表兄、姑母、姨母、姑夫、舅父、姨夫、外祖母、外祖父”,While in English there are no counterparts. This is because the Chinese are more particular about these relation distinctions while the English people do not need to make these distinctions so often. Therefore, an interpreter has to pass profound knowledge about the cultural connotation of English-speaking countries. In this way and only in this way, he or she can convey the cultural connotation in E-C interpretation. This is the main point of cultural factor transmission.
(2)The requirements of cultural factor transmission
The interpreter should have to interpret not only what the speaker says but also what he or she really means. Cultures differ from one another, and each culture is unique. Language is influenced and shaped by culture and it reflects culture. Different language backgrounds determine the form of language expression. For instance, “It was Greek to me” in one of Shakespeare’s plays “Julius Caesar” means “I know nothing about it.” It means“一窍不通”in Chinese. So the requirements of cultural factor transmission, in my opinion, are:
1)to convey the real meaning of culture
Some phrases and sentences in English have inner meaning. It’s difficult for our Chinese interpreters to grasp. What we must do is to put across the meaning(not every individual word in the given phrases or sentences)in the light of the context. For example:
“It’s very kind of you”→“您太客气了”
“That won’t be the end of the world”→“天塌不下来”
“He is braver than wise”→“他有勇无谋”
“Take care how you do so”→“千万别这样做”
“Pull sb’s legs”→“嘲弄某人”
Similarly, in interpreting this English sentence, “This piece of information has not been made public yet, so keep it under your hat”, we can grasp the real meaning of the sentence from the context and render it into.“这条消息尚未发表,因此你要保密。”
2)to transmit the attributes of culture
The term “attribute” here means “a quality or feature, especially one that is considered to be good or useful”(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1997).The attributes of a culture also refer to the good or useful parts of its language. To be a good interpreter, one should certainly interpret the good and useful parts of the target language. For instance. Some foreigners often speak coarse language, such as “Fuck” “Damn it” , which are better not to be interpreted for the listeners’ sake. Fortunately, some good expressions, such as “go and see” “Trust the future; trust the young” are widely accepted by Chinese people. With the development of science and technology, people in different countries will get to know each other better.
3)to pass on the connotation of culture
Some words or phrases in English reflect the connotation of its culture, such as idealism and materialism. As a term of philosophy, idealism, its opposite is materialism, doesn’t contain any ameliorative or derogatory meaning in English. But it is different in Chinese, which means.“唯心主义”On the contrary, materialism means“唯物主义”in Chinese, which is an ameliorative word. But the two terms “idealism” and “materialism” are not always ameliorative or derogatory. For example:
“I came here out of conviction and idealism.”
我是抱着信念和理想而来的。
“A lot of people are prepared to turn their back on the materialist way of life.”
很多人都准备放弃追求物质享受的生活方式。(A Dictionary of British and American Culture , Hu Wenzong 1995)
From the above examples, we can see that “idealism” is ameliorative and “materialism” is derogatory.
The above requirements may be somewhat abstract, But in fact, it is what an interpreter has to do.
3The techniques of cultural factors’ transmission
In the case of E-C interpretation, which involves two well-developed languages that are carriers of two vastly different cultures, techniques do play a helpful role. Besides explanation and conversion, techniques of E-C interpretation include subordination, diction, implication, omission, negation and division, etc. But explanation and conversion are the two basic techniques of cultural factors transmission.
As far as the content of E-C interpretation is concerned, it includes conversation, interview, ceremonial speech, informative speech, persuasive speech, academic speech, business speech, popular science speech etc. No matter what kind of interpretation is, it can’t avoid cultural factor transmission. How to transmit the cultural factors of target language is the problem most interpreters face. Here’s how.
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3.1Equivalence in E-C interpretation
Although Cultures and languages of both English and Chinese are different, it is not difficult for an interpreter to find equivalents in Chinese language in E-C interpretation. For instance. “Welcome to Shanghai, Mr. Roberts” “Nice to meet you” “Thank you so much for your concern” can be interpreted as“欢迎来上海,罗伯茨先生”“很高兴见到您”“非常感谢您的关心”。Fortunately, we find an interesting fact that some expressions, sentence structures and words in English are similar or have the same meaning in Chinese, such as “May I hereby declare openly…” “May I propose a toast…” “cheers” “opening ceremony” “market economic,” etc. Human experiences and observations of the world are similar in many respects. So, in spite of the dissimilar cultural backgrounds of the Chinese and the English-speaking peoples, the number of proverbs or sayings in the two languages that are equivalent or approximately close is rather surprising. Consider the following:
“Strike while the iron is hot”→“趁热打铁”
“Many hands make light work”→“人多好办事”
“More haste, less speed”→“欲速则不达”
“Out of sight, out of mind”→“眼不见,心不烦”
But, in fact, not all words or phrases in English have the similar or the same meaning in Chinese. In other words, the form is similar but the meaning is different. Therefore, we should attach much importance to the cultural connotations. For example, in China, the term “知识分子”, generally includes college teachers, college students, and people as medical doctors, engineers, interpreters——people who have had a college education. In the U.S and Europe, however, intellectuals would include only people of high academic status such as college professors, but not ordinary college students. More examples:
Each time he raised his glass, he would say: “Well, here’s mud in your eye!”
他每次举杯时都说:“祝你好运!”
“Heads I win, tails you lose!”
无论怎样,我都不会输!
The invaders have shown a clean pair of heels.
入侵者已逃之夭夭。
“Anyone can do it on his head,” said the old man.
“这件事谁做起来都很容易。”老人这样说。
3.2Explanation in E-C interpretation
Learning a foreign language well means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. It also includes learning to see the world as native speakers of that language do it, learning the ways in which how their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behavior of their society, learning to understand their “language of the mind.” Otherwise, an interpreter would interpret the superficial meaning of the speaker and miss his inner meaning which reflects the ideas, customs and behavior of his society. As a result, thelisteners would not understand what the speaker really means. In this case, the interpreter should take up the technique of explanation. For instance, once a group of Chinese was visiting the home of a fairly well-to-do American. As they were shown around the house, they commented, “you have a very nice home. It’s so beautiful,” The hostess smiled with obvious pleasure and replied in good American fashion “Thank you”——which caused surprise among some of her Chinese guests. To English-speaking people, praise is to be accepted. It’s assumed that the compliment is sincere, there should be no show of false humidity, no pretended modesty. To Chinese, however, the customary reply to a compliment would be to claim that one is not worthy of the praise in order to show modesty. Acceptance of a compliment would imply conceit or lack of manners. More example, a native speaker says “There are some butterflies in my stomach” If the above sentence is interpreted as “我肚子里有蝴蝶”, it would cause confusion to the Chinese listeners. Because the sentence means that “I feel nervous very much.” Both the cases reflect the speakers’ Culture. Furthermore, some words also need explaining when interpreted, such as “clock watcher” “teenager” in the following sentences.
“She is a clock watcher.”——她是个看着钟等着下班的人。
“He is a teenager.”——他是个十多岁的小孩。
3.3Conversion in E-C interpretation
Because of the cultural differences, some words or phrases do not have equivalents or counterparts in Chinese. So we have to interpret them by conversion or shifting. For example, “Excuse me” is a general term preceding a request or interruption. In Chinese, however, there are different terms:“劳驾”when asking a favor or requesting a person to do something. Therefore, it can’t be interpreted as“对不起”in Chinese. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.” This is an English proverb. It means“入乡随俗”in Chinese, not for“在罗马,就象罗马人那样做。”There are also some common English proverbs that do not seem to have their Chinese equivalents. The sampling below includes some that reflect different daily habits, some that show a different perception of things, or indicate a different philosophy or attitude. Consider
Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
越是不见越想念。
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
常吃苹果少得病。
You can’t have your cake and eat it too.
两者不可兼得。
Let sleeping dogs lie.
莫惹是非。
English proverbs without Chinese equivalents are too numerous to be listed here. As long as the interpreter knows their real meanings and the techniques mentioned above, he or she can translate them well orally, anyway.
As in the case of E-C interpretation, a word in either of these two languages belonging to a certain part of speech has often to be converted into a different part of speech in the target language, and a passive construction into an active one etc.——to conform to the usage of the target language. Conversion is necessitated primarily by the difference in syntactic structure and idiom of the two languages. Consider the following samples:
(1)Nouns converted into verbs:
…to realize the objective of effective prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of all chemical weapons…
……实现有效禁止发展、生产和储存一切化学武器的目标……
(2)Prepositions converted into verbs:
…use military force against oil-producing countries
……用军事力量来对付石油生产国。
(3)Adjectives converted into verbs
With unemployment high, the dollar low and the stock market in distress, the economy will be the President’s sternest trial.
由于失业率增高、美元币值下跌、股票市场处于困境之中,经济问题将是总统所面临的最严峻的考验。
(4)Conversion of the passive into the active:
It is said that…
有人说……(人们说……;据说……)
4The causes which influence the cultural factors’ transmission
There are many causes that affect the cultural factor transmission. It includes cultural background, the qualities of an interpreter and regional differences etc.
4.1Cultural backgrounds
Different languages reflect different cultures. As a phenomenon of social culture, language is the result of the development of social culture. No language can exist and develop without a certain social and cultural environment, meanwhile, social culture restricts the language users’ way of thinking and their ability to express themselves. Because of the cultural differences, misunderstandings may arise in translating or interpreting, although the language used in communication may be faultless.
Once a teacher in a college acted as an interpreter for a foreign teacher, as all the leaders of the college were seated in the sitting- room. The foreign teacher was happy to have so many important guests in his house. After some courteous greetings, the foreign teacher had a suggestion. “Would you like to play Chicken Foot?” “你们想玩鸡爪吗?”the teacher interpreted immediately. The leaders looked at each other in surprise. The foreigner didn’t know why. He rushed into his bedroom and returned with some toy. He showed how to play them just as our Chinese play chess. Only by that time did the teacher know that he had made a mistake. Chicken Foot is kind of game in South America!
4.2The qualities of an interpreter
Interpretation is a job with high professional requirements. There is no doubt that the qualities of an interpreter determine the result of interpretation. These basic qualities include: A. a strong sense of duty. B. a good command of the languages involved. C. an encyclopedic knowledge. D. acute hearing. E. a good pronunciation. F. familiarity with simultaneous note-taking. G. a good memory. H. quick and accurate response, etc. I don’t want to go further into the qualities of an interpreter. But an interpreter must at least have profound knowledge about current affairs, politics, economics, business, trade, science, history, geography, etc. Just as a common saying goes “A good interpreter should know something of everything”.
4.3Regional Differences
Regional differences in the same language may be found in pronunciation, intonation or rhythm; or in the choice or usage of certain words and idioms; sometimes, even in syntax, although this is not so common. Regional differences in English may be quite a problem for Chinese who are used to hearing the standard or more common forms of English. There is no easy solution. One must gradually accustom oneself to the differences through frequent hearing and trying to figure out the meaning. Otherwise, you can’t interpret them well.
In American English, regional differences are not so great, but there are dissimilarities that should be mentioned. People in New England——the northeastern states in America——tend to pronounce certain words the way the British do. People in the South——the dozen or so states in the southeastern part of America——tend to speak with a drawl; they speak slowly and the vowel sounds are greatly prolonged. Also, for a number of objects they use terms that are different from those commonly used in other regions; for example, a bag in other states would be called a poke in the South; a purse would be called a pocketbook.
5The importance of transmission for cultural factors in E-C interpretation
Since we have known the relationship between culture and language, the importance of transmission for cultural factors in E-C interpretation is self-evident. No language doesn’t reflect its culture. Though language is different from one another, it can be interpreted from the angle of culture. Culture covers a broad content. But “Genuine knowledge comes from practice”. As long as the interpreter masters the two languages as well as their cultures, the transmission of cultural factors in E-C interpretation can not be boasted.
6Conclusion
E-C interpretation is a difficult task. To be a good E-C interpreter is even more difficult. As far as E-C interpretation is concerned, it is vital to be quick, accurate and fluent. Cultural factor transmission is only an important part of E-C interpretation. So it is very important for an interpreter to master the connotation of cultural-loaded words and the techniques of cultural factors’ transmission in E-C interpretation.
Reference
1 Deng Yanchang & Liu Renqing. Language and Culture[M]. Foreign language Teaching and Research Press, 1989
2 Hu Wenzong. A Dictionary of British and American culture. Foreign language Teaching and Research Press, 1995
3 Mei Deming. An Intermediate Course of English-Chinese Interpretation. Shanghai Foreign Language Teaching Press, 1998
4 Wang Fuxiang & Wu Hanying. Culture and language[A]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1994
5 Tan Baoquan. Techniques of Modern English Translation[M]. Shanghai. Transportation University Press, 1997
6 Zhong Shukong. A Practical Handbook of Interpretation[M]. Beijing. China Foreign-oriented Translation Publishing Press Co, 1999
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英汉两种语言的表达方式、语言习惯的不同,决定了它们所表达的相同事物之间存在着明显的差异性。然而,由于语言之间的相通性、相融性,也决定了不同语言的相同事物之间又在某些方面存在着必然的共同性。英、汉姓名的异同就是其差异性与共同性的具体体现之一,而在其中所蕴涵的深远的文化底蕴是值得我们回味与咀嚼的。本文就英汉姓名的文化内涵及其翻译方法进行粗浅探讨。
姓名的翻译要遵循两个原则:“名从主人原则”和“约定俗成原则”。“名从主人原则”是指在翻译姓名时,要以该姓名所在国语言的发音为准,而不管该姓名是直接从原文译出的,还是从其他文字转译的。换言之,就是译哪个国家的姓名就要以哪个国家的音为准。如Skolovski“斯克沃夫斯基”(波兰语发音),而不译作“斯科路夫斯基”(英语发音)。“约定俗成原则”是指有些姓名在长期的翻译实践中,已经有了固定的译法,就应该继续使用下去,即使有的不够妥帖,甚至错了,但因多年来已为人们所公认和熟悉,这样的译名也该继续沿用,无须另定译名。如英国著名作家George Bernard Shaw正确的汉译名应是“乔治·伯纳·萧”,但过去该作家的名字一直被译作“萧伯纳”,变成了一个典型的汉名,我们也只有错误地沿袭下去了。
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语言基本上是一种文化和社会产品,要理解它就应该从文化和社会的角度出发。英汉两种语言之间的文化差异给其在语义层面上的转换带来了巨大的障碍,其差异首先表现为价值观念的不同。汉文化是一元文化,强调“社团价值论”;英文化是多元文化,崇尚“个人价值至上论”。除了价值观念差异之外,英汉文化差异还与两个民族所处的地理环境与社会环境、气候条件和风俗习惯等息息相关。
英汉民族由习俗引起的文化差异在一些与动物有关的词汇短语上体现得非常明显。英国人喜欢马,养马、骑马、赛马成为其风俗,英国文化就属于典型的的“马文化”,所以英语中有关马的说法极其丰富,诸如talk horse(吹牛)、 get on one’s high horse(趾高气扬)、horse and horse(并驾齐驱)等等。然而中国是传统的农业国,世代的牛耕生活使汉语囤积了大量的“牛文化”。牛是“吃苦耐劳,勤奋踏实”的象征,“俯首甘为孺子牛”就是体现的这种情结。相反在英语中却用马来代替,汉语中的“老黄牛”翻译成英语也就成了“a willing horse”。
不光如此,英汉语言中的一些表示颜色的词汇也沉淀了不同民情的文化。“红色”在汉语中含有极强的褒义色彩,“大红大紫”显示的是成功和富贵、喜庆和吉祥。与此相反, “red”却常常让西方人想起流血、战争、恐怖、愤怒和危险,含有较强的贬义。
伴随着二十世纪六十年代以来西方翻译的科学理论化进程,我国自八十年代后期,翻译研究呈现出突飞猛进的发展势头。与此同时,随着经济与文化等各方面全球化的影响,无论是翻译理论研究还是翻译实践都展现出一派蓬勃发展的面貌。
在我国,翻译的对象领域被人为的划分为“非文学”的和“文学”的。“非文学”的主要是指一般的实用性文体,如政治、经济、科技、金融、商贸、旅游、体育等,其中最主要的要数“科技翻译”;“文学翻译”则是与科技翻译并行的翻译的门类和方法论。随之也便产生了“非文学”研究和“文学”研究。“非文学”翻译被认为是一种技术性的活动,在翻译活动中长期处于优势地位,与此同时,我们不能否认,文学翻译研究在翻译研究这一领域中占了主导地位,一直是人们关注的焦点。
20世纪80年代以来,受文化研究大潮的影响,翻译的历史文化研究日益受到重视,中西翻译的语言和文化思维的差异表现得极为突出,基于对语境、语气、含蓄等的敏感度及广泛运用各种修辞手法等方面的关注,翻译的文化因素被更多地加以考虑。
语言不仅是人类思想感情表达与交流的工具,而且是文化的组成部分,是文化的载体。语言能真切地反映一个国家、一个民族的生态地域、政治经济、物质文化、宗教信仰、风俗习惯等。不同的语言决定了不同民族不同的思维方式、行为方式以及语言表达方式。然而语言的个性与共性是共存和并重的,洪堡特曾经说过:“比较语言研究是对语言差异的准确探索。”可以说,寻找差异的目的是达到统一,其中必须特别关注的,则是语言的音形、词句、文体等形式中所内涵的精神文化实质。
翻译的实质是将一种语言转换成另一种语言,其目的在于把原语的全部信息输入译语,同时取得最大限度的等值效果。英汉两种语言分属于印欧语系和汉藏语系,不同的语系特点,决定了各自的构词法和词义表达差异很大,要想确切地表达原作内容,在翻译过程中就要应用各种技巧。
有时为了使译文更加符合汉语的表达习惯和规律,在忠实于原文的前提下,必须选词、增词、省略、把词类适当地加以转换,才能使译文通顺自然。当然翻译并不是纯语言本体的转换,它与社会文化等有着各种关系。每一个民族都有自己的社会文化特色,文化是使人们凝聚为一个共同整体的一系列共享的意义、信仰和价值,有其特定的时空范围,因此,一些话语的正说与反说、句型和习语等在翻译时也要考虑到它们各自的特点。
在中国文化和历史中,有许多辉煌成就令外国学者向往,他们认为中华文化博大精深、多姿多彩,其历史源远流长,因此形成了构思方式和语言组织上的重视意合和悟性,区别于西方思维差异上的重形合和理性。汉语的意合无须借助词汇语法的衔接手段,仅靠词语与句子内涵意义的逻辑关系或借助语境、语义、语用的因素,便能构成连贯的语篇,这一特点集中体现在古汉语文学作品中;而英语在语言形式上把词语句子结合成语篇整体时则少不了词汇语法的显性衔接。
德国思想领袖哈贝马斯倡导的“交往行动理论”以理解与沟通为现代社会最高目标,认为翻译研究应该成为人类交往实践的一项基本训练,从他人的角度出发,建立起主客体间的有效联系。这对不同文化背景下的交往甚至是相同背景下的交往都是必要的,这样可以改变现实生活中单向的思维模式,建立一种新的主客体认识模式。
中国人的传统思维讲究天人合一、人法自然、万物皆备于我,所以主体参与意识很强,在语言表达上表现为多以“人”作主语。西方人由于理性的分析而偏重于主客分离和区别,所以有时以“人”这个主体为主语,有时以客体为主语,视情况需要而定,但更多的是抱着客观审视的态度,以事物为主语并进行客观、冷静的剖析和描述,这就导致了英汉语篇主语、主位或是重心上的差异。
从根本上讲,这是中西方各自重综合与重分析思维习惯的表现。中国人喜欢螺旋式的展开方式,先宣称主题之重要,继而进行反复的论述和强调,最后回归到主题;西方人喜欢直线形逻辑思维,就是先表达出中心意思,由此展开,或层层推演或逐项分列,后面的语句由前面的语句自然引出。在一句含有时间、地点、事件的通知性的话语中,中国人的习惯表达是“我们将在什么时间什么地点做什么事情”,西方人的表达是“要进行的事件+地点+时间”。
例如,中国人习惯上说:我们明天早上去看姑妈,7∶00在院子门口集合。西方人的表达是:We will meet at the courtyard gate at 7 O’clock tomorrow morning in order to visit our aunt.
翻译是传译两种相异的语言与文字,总需要将译者与被译者两方面的语言文字做一番深刻的研究,看中文与外文究竟有哪些相异之处。这些相异之处有文法上的、修辞上的、习惯上的和表现手法上的。
如:由于英语重句子的建构,英语句型多,尤其长句多,西方人习惯于使用“叠床架屋”式结构的长句子,在进行翻译时,都要关照到。
在某种意义上说,翻译活动中准确和流利的表达就是在理解原文的基础上,通过深入的逻辑分析和推理,不断冲破原文词义或句法结构的强制范畴,把原文精髓用规范、通顺的译文语言全息再现出来。由于这样的译文不是原文的机械复制品,它往往需要创造性劳动,亦即语言艺术。而表达的艺术主要体现在理解翻译法以及对于原文用词、句法结构、叙述顺序等问题的恰到好处的处理上。由“直译”与“意译”引发出“异化”和“归化”,在翻译实践中都不能不采用。没有哪一种译文是完全异化或完全归化的,在翻译过程中若能使二者相得益彰,那么就会收到意想不到的效果。
西方美学有着悠久的历史和许多优良的学术传统,尤其是近几十年来它的飞跃发展,对译学影响越来越大。在进行文学翻译时,不能忽略作品的比较美学价值,不拘泥于表层结构和形态,不注重译作语言质量的高下。现代翻译需要我们对译品所蕴含的代表不同文化系统的审美特征,乃至于对不同国家和民族所持有的不同的审美理论和思维方式,做出美学价值上的判断,以探索其审美本质和规律。
比较文学的翻译研究不能局限于某些语言现象的理解与表达,也不参与评论其优劣,而是把翻译文学作品作为既成事实加以接受,不仅要对其进行一般意义上的价值判断,还要在此基础上展开对文学交流、影响、接受、传播等问题的考察与分析。
研究文学翻译,研究翻译理论,可以拓展新的角度、新的方法,不再单纯评价译品的优劣高下,而是将各类译品作为审美对象,从美学角度进行鉴赏、品味、对比、分析,使文学作品及其译品所蕴含的美学因素及其价值得到淋漓尽致的揭示,使读者在研读文学翻译作品的同时,充分领略原作与译作的审美价值。
英汉互译实践与技巧翻译是一门实践性极强的学问,需要长期下苦功夫才能真正学到手。译者的翻译能力的形成不能单靠学习理论知识、强化技巧训练,而是需要扎扎实实的双语功底及大量的翻译实践。
无论什么翻译,都不可避免地带有交流的目的。在国际文化交流日益繁荣,在中国与国际各领域接轨日益加速的时代,为使翻译学得以更好的发展,在注意到中西语言文化思维差异性的同时,必须打破翻译研究的地域、学科、流派的限制,形成跨学科综合、多元互补的研究格局,在译学领域加强交流,跨越不同的传统与体系,进行中西译论体系间的双向互补、借鉴和相互渗透,以达到中西译学的交融与共生。
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论文关键词:英汉习语民族文化特征
论文摘要:习语是语言的核心与精华,与本民族的风土人情、历史文化有着千丝万缕的联系。它是各国文化的精髓,反映各国的风俗习惯。习语叉受文化的影响,反映其文化特征。中英两种文化孕育了各具民族特色的习语。试从自然环境、风俗习惯、历史典故、宗教信仰、事物认知观等方面探讨英汉习语所折射的民族文化特征。
习语是语言的一部分,包括成语、俗语、谚语、格言、惯用语、典故等,是一种在结构上与意义上都比较稳定的语言结构。它是语言中的精华与瑰宝,含义深刻且具有浓厚的民族文化色彩。同时,习语又受文化的影响,反映其文化特征。以下谈谈英汉习语与民族文化特征的关系。
一、自然环境差异
英汉民族由于所处的地理位置不同、生活方式有异而形成各具特点的习语。英国是一个岛国,历史上航海业曾一度领先世界,因而英语中产生了大量的来自航海用语的习语。如:togowiththestream随波逐流,totaketheropes了如指掌,totrimone’sailstothewind随机应变,nailone’Scolorstothema坚持到底等等。英语中有不少用鱼来比喻人的习语:apoorfish可怜的家伙,acoldfish冷淡的人,queerfish怪人,ashyfish羞答答的家伙等…。汉民族在亚洲大陆生活繁衍,人们的生活离不开土地,土地、山水对人们来说是至关重要的,所以汉语中有许多与土地、农业有关的习语,如:山崩地裂、东山再起、水到渠成、土生土长、卷土重来、揠苗助长、顺藤摸瓜等。比喻花钱大手大脚,英语是spendmonelikewater,汉语是挥金如土。又如,中国盛产竹,竹子有极丰富的文化内涵,习语如胸有成竹、势如破竹、罄竹难书、节外生枝等。古代的文人墨客也咏竹之高洁与坚贞。英美民族生活地区不产竹,bambo是舶来品、借用语,所以英语中与竹子相关的习语寥寥无几,更无联想意义。形容事物迅速发展,汉语用雨后春笋般、如雨后春笋,英语用likemLlshrooms。在汉语的文化氛围中,夏天常常是骄阳似火,赤日炎炎似火烧。英国夏季气候凉爽宜人,英国人形容夏天是如“爱人”般可爱、温柔、美好。在汉语中东风是春天的使者,在英语中报告春天消息的却是西风,著名的《西风颂》正是对春的讴歌。
二、风俗习惯差异
风俗习惯是一个民族在长期岁月中逐渐形成的文化意识的反映和表现,民俗是习语赖以生长并获得顽强生命力的深厚土壤,许多习语就出自民俗。要表示一件很容易的事情,汉语有习语“小菜一碟”英语有习语apieceofcake。汉语的“小菜”与英语的“蛋糕”都有“容易(或轻松愉快)的事情”之义,这与两国的饮食习惯有关系。蛋糕是英国人在13常生活中经常食用的一种食品,所以他们就用pieceocake表示一件容易做的事情。在中国,小菜在中国人的一日三餐中必不可少,吃一碟小菜对中国人来说易如反掌,因此常用“小菜一碟”来形容一件事情很容易。这两个习语反映了英汉两个民族不同的饮食风俗习惯。在性格方面,中国人质朴凝重,谦虚宽容;英美人性格外向开朗,看重自我,从不贬低自己。汉语习语如“不为祸死,不为福先”、“知足常乐”、“安贫乐道”、“枪打出头鸟”、“生死由命,富贵在天”、“命中无者莫强求”…等表现了中国人以自苦、中庸、明哲保身为特点的为人处世哲学。而英美人则强调人要不断创新,不满足现状,标新立异,寻找新的机会。如“Nomoney,nohoney.没有钱就休想得到称心如意的女人为伴侣;Allisfairinloveandwar.在爱情和战争中,采取任何手段都是正当的”等习语就是这种形象的反映,这些对于礼仪之邦的中国人是接受不了的。
三、历史文化差异
中英两国都有着悠久的历史,文化的博大精深蕴藏着丰富的历史故事,习语中有很大一部分皆来源于此。由于古代中国长年战争,许多习语如围魏救赵、临阵磨枪、毛遂自荐、四面楚歌、卧薪尝胆、负荆请罪、三顾茅庐等出自国家间的征战故事,充分体现了汉民族独特的古代文化。古代的英国,磨坊和铁匠铺是农村的主要手工业生产地,许多习语如arut!ofthemilljob没有多大变化的普通工作,togotosomethingathammerandtongs全力以赴地,callaspadeaspade实话实说,tocomeundertheharmer被拍卖”等与此紧密相联。
四、典故和神话故事
大量英汉习语源于典故。如“东施效颦、名落孙山、叶公好龙、守株待兔、刻舟求剑、黔驴技穷”等是源于寓言故事,“夸父追日、女娲补天、嫦娥奔月、精卫填海、画龙点睛、愚公移山”等出自神话传说。英语习语如“cat’Spaw受人愚弄的人,thebearandthetwotravelers患难见人心,thedogandthecook吃一堑,长一智”等出自《伊索寓言》,“Aladdin’Slame能满足人的一切愿望的东西,oldnqanofsea难以摆脱的人或物”等出自神话故事。神话故事以其久远的历史和丰富的内涵丰富了习语,成为语言中的一个重要组成部分。
五、对事物认知的差异
汉英民族对客观事物各持己见,赋予事物不同的内涵。如“龙”在汉语中象征着吉祥尊贵、威严和力量。习语有“望子成龙、生龙活虎、龙腾虎跃”等。有时也用“腾飞的巨龙”来形容我们的国家,称自己为“龙的传人”。然而在英语中aragon是邪恶的代表,是一种凶残狰狞的怪兽。撒旦被称为d~gon,凶暴的女人称为dragon,“亚洲四小龙”是“Fourtigers”,而不是“Four如ns”。又如在中国北方,猫头鹰出现就是一种凶兆,和吉祥全然无缘。英语中却有aswiseasanowl,表明西方人把owl象征“狡猾、机警、聪明”。两个民族都养狗,汉语中与“狗”有关的习语大多含有贬义,如“狗仗人势、丧家之犬、狼心狗肺、狐群狗党、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、狗腿子、狗头军师”等口j。由此可见中国人对狗讨厌之至,对狗没有任何赞美之意。然而,对西方人而言,狗既可以看门或打猎,也可以做人忠诚的朋友。英语中有关狗的习语多数有褒义。如“Loveme,lovemydog.爱屋及乌atopdog优胜者;agaydog快活人;awaterdog水性好的人;Youarealuckydog.你真幸运。”又如中国人用“花花公子”表示“只追求享受、过纸醉金迷生活的轻浮阔少爷”,用“拈花惹草”表示作风不正派的男人。而英语的flower却无汉语中提到的含义。再如daffodil汉语中是“黄水仙”,仅仅是一种花而已,但在英语中它是春天、欢乐的象征。在色彩方面,英语中的白色象征着快乐、纯洁。例如习语“daysmarkedwithawhitestone幸福的日子,awhitelie无恶意的谎言,whiteelephant大、笨而无用之物”…。但在汉语中,白色蕴涵悲怆贫寒,衰败死亡之意。如“日暮苍山远,天寒白屋贫”,“一穷二白”,都勾勒出苍凉寂凄、衰败哀愁的意境。
六、宗教差异
与宗教信仰有关的习语也大量地出在英汉语言中。佛教传人中国已一千多年,人们相信佛主和因果报应及生死轮回,很多习语如“一尘不染、万事皆空、现身说法、借花献佛、在劫难逃”等与此有关。在英美,人们多信奉基督教,习语“Godhelpsthosewhhelpthemselves上帝帮助自助的人,Gotohell下地狱,aPandora’Sbox潘多拉之盒,theswordofDamocle即将临头的危险,attheeleventhhour最后时刻”等来自“圣经”。
总之,英汉习语结构凝练、意义深远、言简意赅形象生动、含蓄幽默,富于表现力和生命力,并都具有很深的历史渊源和文化背景,是民族文化在语言里的结晶,闪烁着民族文化的光芒。通过英汉习语来源的比较,我们看到了英汉两个民族文化的不同特征,能更好地理解和灵活运用英汉习语。
参考文献:
[1]刘艳芹.从英汉习语看不同民族的文化差异[J].平原大学学报,2O06,(4):87—89.
[2]卢梅.英汉习语的文化差异及其翻译[J].西南科技大学学报,2005,(2):147—148.
[3]杨芳.英语习语的文化内涵.盐城师范学院学报[J]2002,(3):90—92.
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景泰小曲作为甘肃民族民间文化遗产代表作,具有较高的艺术价值﹑文化价值和社会价值。景泰小曲来源于民间,创作于民间,流传于民间,它是景泰老百姓文化娱乐的主要形式之一,是地地道道的景泰民间传统文化,它贴近生活﹑贴近实际﹑贴近群众的生活状态。景泰小曲是促进社会文明和农村文化建设﹑建立和谐景泰不可缺少的重要文化素材之一。以下是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:甘肃景泰小曲的历史渊源及音乐文化特征探讨相关论文,内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
摘要:景泰小曲是流行于甘肃景泰县境内的一种民间传统小戏剧,景泰小曲的历史渊源复杂,它适合表现劳动人民的生活﹑感情和思想。景泰小曲被当地人民俗称为“小曲子”。景泰小曲是人们结合历史传说、人民生活及歌颂性质等多方面内容弹唱的一种地方性的曲艺。
关键词:景泰小曲 历史渊源 音乐文化特征
(一)历史渊源
景泰小曲是老百姓喜闻乐见的一种艺术形式,短小精悍,活泼多样,对演出场地要求不高,特别适宜于广大人民群众排练和演出。景泰小曲的历史渊源复杂,它的发展趋势如下:据历史文献记载景泰小曲属于一种综合艺术,在唐朝就开始有人表演,当时它只是作为一种“地摊戏”①在外演出;到清朝时有所发展,当时由人们自我编曲填词演唱,就在芦阳镇席滩村成立了一个唱小曲的班子;到民国十五年小曲遍布景泰各地,致使更多的人民开始学习并传唱;到民国末年,由于社会原因及历史原因,其发展形势渐衰;到““””时期,景泰小曲由于历史原因被禁唱,随之进入低落时期;但在改革开放以后,景泰小曲又逐渐兴盛了起来,人们将在唐朝时期流传的小曲和清朝时期发展起来的小曲进行整合改编,随之景泰小曲就此而演变成型,流传了下来。
(二)生存环境特征
景泰小曲作为一种民间曲艺,历史以来深受景泰人民群众的喜爱,使它具有顽强的生命力,至今仍然是人们茶余饭后?p喜庆之余,在街道?p地摊?p广场?p公园等活动时的主要文化娱乐内容,它带给百姓生活的真切感,百听不厌,久唱不衰。景泰小曲常以“地摊”的方式在民间娱乐活动,与大戏相比,规模小?p参与人少。它演出没有华丽的舞台,不用专业的剧务。一把乐器?p一把椅子就能把人们心中的悲与乐表演得淋漓尽致。
(一) 景泰小曲的基本内容
景泰小曲基本内容主要包括有小曲弹唱内容?p表演形式及所需伴奏乐器。它具有不同于其它音乐的内容形式及特点。
1.景泰小曲的弹唱内容
景泰小曲内容是根据民歌整理和民歌改编而来的。它是由小曲爱好者经常深入田间地头?p柴院茅屋搜集民歌?p民曲,并加以整理翻新,取精去伪,整理而来的。小曲主要内容有五个方面:淳朴的乡风、炽热的爱情、悲情感天的孝道、金戈铁马的征战、历史逸闻趣事。小曲是民间流行的俚语?p歌谣,是祖宗留下的?p世代口耳相传的?p十分宝贵的非物质文化遗产。小曲的演唱内容是乡土的?p本色的。它扎根景泰,植根民众,说的是老百姓身边的事,不事粉饰,不事雕琢,朴朴素素,本本色色。
2.景泰小曲的表演现状
景泰小曲表演形式方便灵活,五六人即可,十多人不限,经常在“村口”?p“大队”以自娱自乐为主,用景泰当地方言演唱,不同的乡镇,方言也是有所不同的。在平时的晨练和晚饭后的娱乐中,常看见几艺人围坐在一起表演小曲,他们自我尽情的陶醉于小曲音乐之中。
3.景泰小曲的伴奏乐器
景泰小曲的伴奏乐队是由我国民间乐器组成,乐队的配置有很强的地方特色和浓郁的乡土气息。最常用的第一类乐器是弦索类,有三弦?p板胡?p二胡?p扬琴等,其中最主要的乐器是三弦。第二类乐器是击乐类,有梆子等,梆子主要是掌握节奏的作用,当一曲结束时,常常用连敲以示终止。
(二)景泰小曲的音乐文化特征
景泰小曲通常在人们休闲娱乐和集体劳动中演唱,形势比较规整,表现手法多种多样。有时一人演唱,多人欣赏;也可集体表演,集体娱乐。景泰小曲独具四大特征:
1.演唱语言特征
演唱语言简单,通俗易懂,大部分都是描述人民生活的唱词。用方言演唱,这就方便了人们开口就能演唱。小曲具有差异性特征,由于口传心授,没有固定版本,在一代接一代的传授中必然形成了腔调和唱本的差异。即使是同一个腔调?p同一段唱词,地域不同,唱法也就不同。小曲故事情节浅显?p表演风格缠绵悱恻?p使人喜怒哀乐随性而发。
2.节奏多样
景泰小曲节奏多样,旋律行进流畅,小曲中的节奏接近戏曲,不同于西方音乐中的强弱拍,景泰小曲用梆子敲出板?p眼来控制小曲的速度与强弱对比。在这样的情况下,小曲演奏没有机械式的平均速度,而是随着小曲的曲调?p剧情发展?p感情起伏来即兴的演奏的。旋律行进流畅自如,演唱朗朗上口,一般都是旋律不变,唱词进行反复,在清唱前有时会加入引子和开场白,在必要的情形中会加入念白。小曲的演唱中多加以修饰,通常在旋律中加入“花音”②?p“苦音”③等。景泰小曲音乐旋律是经过了众多民间艺人?p传唱者的传承和二度创作才最终确定下来的。小曲节奏多以四分?p八分?p十六分音符为主。
3.演唱风格突出
在景泰小曲的演唱过程中还频繁出现“帮腔”的表现方法,在演唱中加入帮腔,可以营造一种欢乐宏大的氛围,要求伴奏人员和主唱者一起合唱。这一特色在小曲音乐中更为独特,它有力地烘托了欢快?p热烈的演唱氛围。在帮腔演唱中,一般重复主唱的最后一句唱词或最后一句旋律而不加唱词,节奏较简单,格式稳定。帮腔的大多是衬词,将曲调的最后一句重复演唱。
4.调式与调性的特色
景泰小曲的调式与调性明朗?p欢快。景泰小曲属于我国民族七声调式。在七声徵调式清乐音乐体系中,主音“5”与属音?p下属音之间分别构成了纯五?p纯四度音程关系,加上“清角”和“变宫”的不稳定性,尖锐的倾向性,使曲调表现出明朗?p愉快的调式色彩,极具民间特色。景泰是一个历史渊源复杂,历史悠久的文明县城。在长期的生产劳动中,勤劳善良?p聪明智慧的景泰人民创造了灿烂辉煌的景泰民族民间独有音乐文化。
①地摊戏流行在西北,是当地的小曲、小调糅合在一起而形成的,有说有唱,唱腔老而缓慢,幽而雅,柔和而动听。地摊戏出场人物少,服装、道具简单,同时不受地点限制,随时可以演出,广受当地群众喜欢。
②花音又叫欢音,因具有欢快爽朗的风格色彩而得名。
③苦音又叫哭音,因擅长表现悲愤哀伤的感情而得名。
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科学的繁荣是应用技术和理论研究的共同兴盛,近代西方科学的兴起很大程度上与重大的科学理论被发现有关。以下是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:近代中华科学文化衰退的制约因素探析相关论文。内容仅供参考阅读。
近代中华科学文化衰退的制约因素探析全文如下:
[内容提要]中华科学文化在古代曾经领先于世界,对于世界科学进步起者不可磨灭的贡献,而到了近代却落后于西方,这是一个至今没有圆满答案的问题。 本文从中国传统文化、政治制度和科学研究方法等方面分析制约近代中华科学文化发展的因素。
[关键词]近代中华科学文化;衰退;制约因素。
中国社会五千年历史中有过辉煌的创新与发明,四大发明在世界文明进程中极大推进了各国发展的步伐。英国著名的科学史家李约瑟说过:“中国在公元3 世纪到13 世纪之间保持了一个西方望尘莫及的科学知识水平”,中国古代的科学文化“往往远远超过同时代的欧洲,特别是15 世纪之前更是如此。”中国人对科学技术有着卓越的贡献,“要是没有这种贡献,就不可能有我们西方文明的整个发展历程。因为如果没有火药、造纸、印刷术和指南针,欧洲封建主义的消失就是一件难以想象的事”。[1]萨顿在厚达4000 页的专著《科学史导论》中,从古代一直研究到公元14 世纪,他列举了大量的科学家名字,而中国科学家就有249 人。但是,中国的科学文化的繁荣只是相对的,特别是到了近代,中国的科学文化落后于曾向自己学习的西方。中国人开始摆脱“一向以自己为中心”的姿态,学习西方先进的科学。中国的科学文化为什么得不到持续的繁荣呢?事实上,在中国传统科学文化繁荣的同时,中国传统的文化、思维方式、科学研究方法等方面都严重地束缚着我国古代科学文化的发展。
中国传统文化虽不绝然否定科学和技艺的作用,甚至还包含了某些科学方面的知识,但却是贬低科学的实用价值的,中国传统文化关注的是国家政务,轻视对自然的探索。儒学事实上就是如此,它认为科学和技艺只是“小道”,“雕虫小技”,解决不了人安身立命的根本问题,君子不可沉溺其中,君子应潜心于仁义道德的研究。《新唐书·方技列传》说:“凡推步、卜相、医巧皆技也,——小人能之。”孔子主张“志于道,据于德,依于仁,游于艺。”而且认为技艺会使人玩物丧志,于国事无,并把它归于不道德的功利行为,从而也抑制了技艺的研究发展。而中国自汉武帝推行“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”的文化专制政策以来,儒家经典获得了政治意识形态的权威,春秋战国时代那种学术自由、“百家争鸣”的气氛荡然无存。历来的统治者又都把科学技术诬为“下九流”、“奇技淫巧”。道学也具有反科学主义的特点。
道学追求回归自然,但它不主张探索自然和改造自然,这就必然不推崇科学技术。可以说道学创始人老子创立了世界上第一个反科学、反理性主义体系,他的“无为而治”看似进入超脱一切的境界,本质上这是一种“绝圣弃智”、“绝巧弃利”、“绝学无忧”[3]的蒙昧主义的纲领和“善为道者,非以明民,将以愚之”的愚民国策。佛教也是中国传统文化的重要组成部分,它虽然蕴涵着一定程度的理性思想,但是,基本上具有非理性本质。禅宗吸取老子“不言之教”的思想和道家悟性直观思维传统,主张以悟性思维顿悟本真的佛性并且不立文字地去洞察世界的本质,从而具有浓重的非科学特质。
作为中国古代封建政治产物的科举制度对中国古代科学技术发生了重要作用,但是科举考试的内容主要是儒家经典,所以只能培养出背诵经典章句,善于文辞而缺乏实学的人才。中国传统的知识分子是闭门穷经,“两耳不闻窗外事,一心只读圣贤书”,而且做学问只是注释、考据先贤的著作,极少创新。他们把毕生的精力埋于古籍堆中,只继承不创新,只完善不突破,思想受古经束缚很大。到了元明之际,科举考试内容仅限于八股文,内容局限于“四书五经”,完全排斥了科学技术内容,使古代科学技术的成果得不到继承和发展。绝大多数的知识分子终生致力于国家政务,自然知识、生产技术等科学技术为他们所不齿。这不仅摧残了知识分子的身心健康,更严重的是束缚了知识分子的思想。“程朱理学”的兴起,更加深了对人们心灵的摧残。封建的纲常名教严重地禁锢着人们的思想和行为,从而也束缚了科学文化事业的发展。
我国古代是官本位的社会,除了做官,大部分游散于民间的知识分子(士)和手工业者的社会地位是非常低下的,他们由于行走于国家政权之外,科学研究是得不到国家的认可和支持的,所以很大一部分研究开展不下去。比如说墨家,墨家的阶级基础是手工业生产者,除了一部分手工业者积累起了充分的财富而参与政治生活等之外,另有一部分手工业者则因拥有财富而有条件从事与手工业、商业等有关的独立的学术研究,进而推动了这一时期科学技术的发展。可惜的是,战国之后,手工业者由于社会地位低下,经济上没有大的实力,所以,已无能力研究与他们手工业有关的科学了,这样,墨家及其传统在后世没有得到重视和发展。况且,墨家一直受到儒、道、法诸家的摈斥,在中国传统文化演进中几乎中断、绝响。
近代西方科学的发展与他们科学的研究方法密不可分。西方科学注重分析,在研究一个具体事物或事物的某一局部时,总要把它从错综复杂的联系中分离出来,独立地考察它的实体和属性。中国传统科技则与西方科技截然相反,注重整体思维缺乏个体逻辑分析,是注重综合,注重从整体上把握事物。
这一整体思维方式是以忽视部分乃至否认部分和部分之间的区别而强调由整体分解出部分、进而由整体的性质来决定部分的性质,这就必然要以思辩和直觉来维持。人们往往不通过逻辑推理的过程来看待自然界和自然现象,而是借助于直觉洞悉自然,而这种直觉往往与日常经验或类比推理联系在一起。一旦对自然现象提出的疑问与人们的直觉相悖,或者超出了人们所能直觉的范围,这时人们往往就会否定这一疑问,而不是进一步加以研究。
这种整体性在中国的医学、农学、天文学,甚至中国的逻辑学中,则表现出一种没有经过逻辑分析的总体观念。所以中国科学文化中对大自然的理论性认识是远远不够的,中国古代科学一直也没有形成完整的自然科学体系。中国传统科学研究往往由于缺乏形式逻辑及其分析的研究必然带有思辩性和猜测性,这显然不利于中国古代科学技术的发展以及古代科学技术向近代科学技术的转化。
科学的繁荣是应用技术和理论研究的共同兴盛,近代西方科学的兴起很大程度上与重大的科学理论被发现有关。能量守恒与转换定律等三大理论的发现,揭起了近代西方科学大发展的序幕。但是中国的研究往往与生产、生活密切联系,而进一步的理论则是无人问津。中国古代注重对人与社会的研究,忽视对人、社会以外的大自然的研究。儒家始终抱定一种坚定的态度,“认为只有人与人的社会才值得研究。”[5]道家甚至认为“有机械者必有机事,有机事者必有机心,机心存在于胸中,则纯白不备;纯白不备,则神生不定;神生不定者,道之所不载也。”“民多利器,国家滋昏,人多技巧,奇物滋起”,只有彻底地杜绝机械、机事、机心,才能使全社会还朴归真。墨家虽然研究了大量的光学、力学、数学等问题,且这些工作大都是开创性的,但是,它也不重视对自然的一些普遍问题的研究,而注重的是社会上发生的实际问题,如技术问题,这就是说,它也没有自己的自然哲学,即对自然界根本性问题进行研究的哲学。
同时我国发达的兵、农、医、艺四大实用科学传统,都是为现实的政治伦理和社会生活服务的。如天文学的研究,历代王朝都设立专官观测天象,修改历法,而历法的制定和修改与皇权神授的政治目的相联系,把天象作为社会人事变迁的重要征兆。科学著作基本上也是看到什么就记下什么,对看到的事可以想些什么就很少有人去探究了。农学著作主要是记述生产经验,很少提出规律性的认识;天文学主要是记载观测数据及观测到的现象,对隐藏在现象背后的原因就不再追究,以至于哈雷慧星从春秋到清末被记录31 次,但发现其出现平均周期的却是十七世纪科学家哈雷;医药学也是经验的汇编,缺乏自身的理论体系;而《齐民要术》、《梦溪笔谈》、《天工开物》等重要著作都是百科全书式的实用科学著作,对科学理论却极少涉及。
实用理性的知识趣味,决定了中国人对自然奥秘的探索,主要是来自于那些经验的实用技术,以直接满足日常生活和政治统治的需要,但是并不热心于没有“急功近利”的公理系统,以及仅仅为证明理论的科学实验,这恐怕不能不说是中国近代科学落后于世界潮流的重要原因之一。重技术、轻理论的学术传统,在很大程度上限制了中国古代科学向高级形态的发展。
科学追求的是事物的根本道理,科学精神即自由探索的精神、理性的精神、追求真理献身真理的精神、实事求是的精神、勇于批判和大胆创新的精神。西方近代科学精神赋予理性至上的权威,在科技方面表现为大胆假设,细心求证,而且科学发展重视以实验为主,所谓科学实验就是对假设理论进行检验。实验的过程不但可以检验其正误,往往还可能提升或推翻这个理论。正因为这些文化传统,西方人士比较习惯大胆假设,小心论证,因而产生了许多重要的、革命性的成果。相反,中国科学的发展由于缺乏科学论证的态度而最终不能实现向现代科学的转换。
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Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下:
〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。
〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略
阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。
例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。
既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。
认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。
研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。
从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解;
但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。
对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。
Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。
Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。
一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。
许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。
Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。
在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。
正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。
母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。
Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.
第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。
这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。
经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。
例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。
确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。
最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。
此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。
总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。
在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。
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以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
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肢体语言 (Body Language )又称身体语言,是指经由身体的各种动作,从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之,肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之,肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时,我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!
Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi
Foreign Language Department
Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.
【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language
As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.
The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.
English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.
Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.
1. Body language helps to improve listening
The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.
2. Body language helps to improve speaking
The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.
The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.
3. Body language helps to improve reading
The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.
When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.
In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.
4. Body language helps to improve writing.
Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.
To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.
The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.
Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.
1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999
2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999
3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.
4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990
5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997
6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998
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it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写,例如信息技术:Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!
and的理解与表达全文如下:
and是英语中使用频率极高的连词,用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ,试就and的用法进行归纳, 以利于读者理解与掌握。
一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子,可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如:
Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)
They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语,我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)
如果连接两个以上的词语,通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调,可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时, 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如:
I like eggs,meat,rice,bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。
All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳,做各种各样的事情。
The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。
有些用and连接的词语,次序是固定的,不能随意改变。如:
men,women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。
二、表示目的 在口语中,and常用在go,come,try等动词后连接另一个动词,表示目的。此时and相当于 to,不必译出。如:
Go and see!去看看!
Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。
三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后,常用and连接一个简单句,表示条件与结果的关系, 它们在语法上是并列关系,但在意义上却是主从关系,也可译为“如果……就……”。如:
Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard,you will live happily.如果你努力工作,你就会活得愉快。
Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话,你就会见到他。
四、表示承接关系 and用在句首,起承上启下的作用, 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等,也可不译。如:
And what's this?那么这是什么呢?
And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。
五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组,后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then, 可译为“然后”。如:
Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来,然后步行爬上第15层楼。
Go along the street,and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走,然后在第三个路口向右拐。
六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词, 动作同时发生,前一个动词表示姿势 或状态,后一个动 词表示伴随动作, and 相当于while,可译为“边……边……”。如: They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。
The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。
七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句,带有因果关系,此时and相当于so, 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如:
She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈,于是哭了起来。
It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气,因而人人都很忙。
八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句,第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明,可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如:
If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康,你就得少吃食物——同时,你还得多进行运动。
Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢,还要穿上你的旧衣服。
九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时,相当于but,但语气较弱,可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如:
I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多,而且运动得不 够。
They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉,但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。
十、表示强调,加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词,表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如:
The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀,笑个不停。
They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。
She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我,哭得越来越厉害。
十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语,这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如:
He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。
When C
hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前,耶稣出生时,许多人,无论贫富,都给他礼物。
十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词,前者可译为“加”,后者则不译。如:
What's one and two?一加二是多少?
There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。
Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。
The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。
I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天,因为它很凉爽。
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新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由,调解社会矛盾,维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式,自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!
As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?
This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.
To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.
That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.
The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.
The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.
The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.
Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).
In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.
This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).
Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.
Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.
These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.
And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.
Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.
The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.
But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.
How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.
(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.
(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.
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文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准,可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:美国文学史。仅供大家参考!
美国文学史全文如下:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.
Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要:从殖民地时期起,欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期, 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后,美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要,美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭, 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期,产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义,和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代,产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量,也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响, 社会动荡不安,这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面, 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展,创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后,美国人陷入战后的茫然, 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。
我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开, 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。
关键词: 民族文学, 浪漫主义, 超验主义, 本土色彩, 现实主义, 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition,and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."
The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.
(1) Early Romantics
In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.
Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.
(2) The Transcendentalism
“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.
Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.
(3) High Romantics
Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.
There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).
Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.
Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.
Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.
After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.
(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain
Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).
(2) Rise of Realism
“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.
There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.
After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.
Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.
The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.
(1) Modern poetry
Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.
Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.
(2) Modern novels
Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).
Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.
Epilogue
American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.
1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975
2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982
3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988
4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998
5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997
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广告定位属于心理接受范畴的概念,所谓的广告定位就是指广告主通过广告活动,使企业或品牌在消费者心目中确定位置的一种方法。定位思想的最先倡导者是:美国著名广告专家J·克劳特。以下是读文网小编今天为大家精心准备的:文化因素与商业广告定位及创意的关系研究相关论文。内容仅供参考,欢迎阅读!
[摘 要]跨文化广告是跨国界、跨文化的商品营销的宣传形式。不同国家、不同民族、不同文化群体有着不同的传统文化、价值 观念、消费观念等。广告的定位、创意是广告成败的关键。文化因素在其中扮演了重要角色。
[关键词]文化因素;广告;定位;创意
美国广告学者艾·里斯等在《广告攻心战略——品牌定位》中指出:“定位并不是要你对产品做什么事,定位是你对潜在的顾客心智所下的功夫。定位并不是不牵涉到改变,它确实在改变。但改变的是名称、价格及包装,实际上对产品则完全没有改变。所有的改变,基本上是在作着修饰而已,其目的是在潜在顾客心中得到有利的地位。”广告定位主要有两大类:实体定位和观念定位。实体定位强调的是:在广告宣传中突出产品的新价值,与同类产品相比,所具有的独特性,以及能够给消费者带来的更大利益。观念定位是在广告中突出宣传品牌产品新的意义和新的价值取向,诱导消费者的心理定势,树立新的价值观念,从而引导市场消费的变化或发展。影响广告定位的因素有很多,其中民族文化因素是不容忽视的,它的作用是在广告中突出、渲染一种具有个性的、独特的、与受众文化和谐的气氛,它的目的是吸引潜在的消费者,在公众中树立起自己企业的形象。
从日本三家汽车公司在中国销售所做的宣传广告语:“车到山前必有路,有路必有丰田车”;“有朋远方来,喜乘三菱牌”;“古有千里马,今有日产车”,我们知道,它们都是由中国的谚语“车到山前必有路,船到桥头自然直”、“有朋自远方来,不亦乐乎”、和“千里马易寻,而伯乐难求也”演绎而来。从中我们可以看出,广告的创作者对中国博大精深的传统文化做了深入的研究、分析。这样做,不但求得了在中华民族文化上的认同感,使潜在的顾客对其产品产生一种亲切感,同时也增强了广告的感染力和渗透力,说明他们的产品畅销各地,深受用户喜爱,使得它们在中国的销售有比较好的业绩。
由于人们在文化语境和价值取向方面存在差异,不同民族的文化心理、伦理道德、社会制度对广告都有着深刻的影响。美国著名运动品牌耐克通过以“just do it”为主题的系列广告,和篮球明星乔丹的明星效应,迅速成为体育用品的第一品牌,而这句广告语正符合崇尚个性、提倡自由的美国青少年一代的心态:要做就做,只要与众不同,只要行动起来。但在香港电视上播放时,“just do it”译成“想做就去做”。许多消费者认为该广告有诱导青少年干坏事的嫌疑,纷纷投诉,在将广告词改成“应做就去做”后,才得到消费者的认可。尽管只是一字之差,意思却截然不同。这是因为在华人占主流的香港特区,尽管由于其独特的地理位置和特殊的历史原因,造就其成为一个开放式的城市,但是传统的中国文化依然深深地根植于老百姓的心中,自律具有传统的心理优势,它要求人们的行为举止必须符合一定的行为规范。
具有不同文化背景的受众对同一广告内容会有不同感受和理解,同样的广告在不同的国家和地区会产生不同的宣传效果。世界上不同的语言各具特色,其表达方式与文化习惯也存在一定差异。这是由于民族文化之间存在着民族历史、社会制度、道德信仰、文学艺术、心理特点、风俗习惯、价值观念、思维方式、生活方式以及地域风貌等等差别而造成的。
美国一家汽车公司把它生产的“Matador”汽车销往波多黎各,“Matador”的英文意思是“斗牛士”,借此比喻该车的敏捷和威风。可是创作者忽视了“Matador”一词在波多黎各当地语言中是“杀手”意思。在一个交通死亡率居高不下的地方,“杀手”牌汽车怎么卖得出去?再如,许多国产护肤品在说明书中将“增白”译为“whiten the skin”。在汉文化里,“增白”是褒义词,汉语中“一白遮百丑”的说法反映了汉民族的审美心理。而西方国家的有钱人追求的是黑里透红的健康美,苍白在他们看来代表着贫困和疾病,并非美的象征。基于这样的审美期待,谁愿意花钱买“难看”呢?熊猫在世界多数国家受到欢迎,“熊猫”这一品牌译成各种语言,大多能产生美好的联想,但在信奉伊斯兰教的国家,用熊猫来做品牌广告,却遭到攻击和抵制。因为熊猫外形像肥猪,也被认为是忌物。跨文化广告创作必须充分了解并尊重与受众国的文化差异,不符合受众文化的消费心理、有悖于他们的审美标准的广告,结果都无法赢得市场。
广告的生命力在于创新求异,广告宣传必然或多或少地改变着一些传统文化,推动文化的发展。因此,跨文化广告定位时必须充分了解并尊重与受众国的文化差异。美国通俗文化,风行世界,麦当劳快餐店广告总是裹携着美国文化,遍布全球。麦当劳的多种汉堡包都以牛肉为主要原料,其原因是美国是以牛肉为主要肉食。为了争取印度的市场以获得更多的消费者,麦当劳将羊肉作为在印度出售的汉堡的主要原料,这是因为印度是一个信奉印度教的国家,他们把牛敬为神,忌食牛肉。麦当劳尊重了印度的民族习惯和民族文化,从而顺利地拓展了在印度的销售市场。麦当劳还根据不同国家的文化,在不同的国家配有不同的菜单:在法国配有香槟,在英国配有威士忌,在德国有啤酒,在新加坡、马来西亚有果味奶昔,在中国则配有红茶。这种融合两种文化优势的原则在广告中同样很重要,一方面要有本民族文化特色才能吸引受众,另一方面适应受众文化才能被接受。
尽管具有不同文化背景的受众对同一广告内容会有不同的感受和理解,但是由于人类所拥有的相同的特质,同样的广告定位角度在不同的国家和地区也是适用的,也会产生相同的宣传效果。比如,初为人父母的年轻一族,把刚出世的宝宝视为掌上明珠,他(她)们愿意为孩子做一切可以做的事情。广告的创作者就是从这个角度出发,抓住特定人群的心理特征,来选择或修改其广告定位的。
美国宝洁公司“帮宝适”纸尿布的成功,关键在于广告定位的调整。当时,纸尿布在美国市场上已有20多年的历史。虽然宝洁公司开发的“帮宝适”纸尿布比其他的同类产品质量更好,但其市场占有率却不到0.5%。通过市场调研分析发现,过去的广告定位是强调使用纸尿布的方便、高效,“母亲”是广告主题的受益者。而实际情况是,许多母亲对使用纸尿布心存内疚,认为自己是个只顾自己方便而忽视孩子的懒惰又浪费的不称职的母亲,因此,对于该产品有抵触情绪。于是,“帮宝适”立即调整了定位——将它放在婴儿受益一方,强调纸尿布吸水性更强、更卫生、更柔软舒适的优点。这样一来,该产品很快畅销全球。
同样,广州市广告公司设计的“鸿运转页扇”广告画面:以梦幻的玫瑰色为主色调,一个漂亮的小女孩沉浸在甜美的梦乡,脸上挂着甜甜的微笑,广告语“柔柔的风,甜甜的梦”将温馨、甜美、浓浓的爱意传递给目标受众。该广告的定位是核心家庭,针对年轻父母特别珍爱独生子女的心理特征,将使用转页扇带给小孩的好处展示给父母,从而影响其购买取向。
广告定位是广告创意的前提,广告创意是广告定位的表现。广告要想成功,一定要有创意,只有这样才能将广告信息有效地传递给目标受众。从创意的源流来看,广告所体现的是人与人之间、人与所生存环境之间的价值的实现问题。它具有特定的对象——居住在某一地区或属于某个民族的特定消费者。为了使广告在目标受众中引起好感,产生共鸣,广告创作者就必须了解目标受众的民族文化。在广告创意时,恰当运用民族文化有助于创作消费者喜欢并乐意接受的广告。一个国家、一个民族的文化传统、美学观念以及特有的文字,图案色彩,都能体现出跨国文化广告的鲜明个性,融合在广告创作中。
某年的春节期间,美国可口可乐公司面向中国受众推出了一个迎合中国习俗与文化背景的电视广告。广告画面:红瓦红墙的中式建筑,穿中国传统服装的小男孩,从电车上跳下的回乡游子,一人用红笔在巨幅红布上书写一个巨大的“福”字,可乐在杯中泛着泡沫以及同时叠现的中国传统的贺新春的场面,最后是广告语“当团聚的时候,挡不住的感觉”。这则广告以中国红为主色,辅之以中国传统的庆祝春节的画面,把佳节思亲的情绪融入到可口可乐的广告主题“挡不住的感觉”之中,收到了很好的效果。无论在讲英语的国家,还是在中国,红色与庆祝活动或喜庆的日子有关。在中国红色具有的象征意义比西方国家要更加强烈。凡是与吉祥、兴旺、热闹等有关的事物,在汉语中都喜欢用“红”来表示,如“红利”、“红火”、“红包”等。表示顺利和成功时,也用“红”表示,如“披红”、“开门红”、“满堂红”等等。这则广告的创作者就抓住了中国传统的这一特征,迎合了中国消费者的民族文化情结。
由“全球化(Global)”广告转向“全球本土化(Glocal)”广告,要求广告创意中要保持本民族文化的精神。因为“文化只有是民族的,才是世界的”。万宝路在这一点上做得非常出色。下面是1993年底万宝路为中国市场而创作的一则贺岁广告。背景:万里长城的西端起点,丝路文化和长城文化融为一体、交相辉映的“边陲锁钥”——嘉峪关。马蹄声声,无数身穿中国民族服饰的骑手从各个城门涌入。震天锣鼓,响彻云霄。长城内外,身穿中国民族服饰的西部汉子,排着整齐的方阵,跳着庆祝丰收的锣鼓舞。随着鼓声嘎然而止,一声嘹亮、豪迈的长啸划破天空。一时间,无数鲜红的缎带从长城上倾泻而下,正契合了中华传统文化的“鸿运高挂”之意。“万宝路恭贺各位新年进步”的广告语在一片喜气洋洋的场景烘托下,传到了我们耳边。万宝路广告形象及广告表现始终如一。在本土,它选择的人物形象是具有美国西部背景和原形的牛仔。因为美国提倡的是张扬个性、勇于探索、追求创新。当面对中国的受众时,万宝路广告则做了适当的修改,它选择的人物形象是具有中国西部背景的西部汉子,因为我们中国的传统是以朴实、善良、勤劳、勇敢为美德。这样就将狂放不羁的万宝路精神融入了中华神州的文化氛围当中,易为中国的消费者接受。万宝路这一“国际品牌本土化表现”策略——地点、人物、表现手法的选用,令其品牌概念在文化层面上与中国消费者达成了沟通,深刻体现出对中国文化的理解和尊重。
外商所做的成功的广告,大都是根据受众的文化心理进行创意的。广告创作者要针对不同的受众来研究他们的传统文化、风俗习惯、伦理道德、价值观念、语言习惯等。只有在了解受众文化对广告受众影响的基础上进行创意,广告才能为受众理解和接受。否则,就无法赢得市场。
一则名为“恐惧斗室”的最新耐克篮球鞋广告片,男主角是NBA巨星——勒布朗·詹姆斯。他进入一个五层高的建筑,与身着长袍的中国的老者“比拼”,并将老者击倒;詹姆斯扣碎篮板,身着中国服装的“飞天”随之粉碎;随后,篮板旁出现了两条中国龙的形象,二龙吐出烟雾和妖怪来阻碍詹姆斯的进攻。由于在这个广告片中,涉及到众多中国文化元素被广告片男主角NBA球星勒布朗·詹姆斯打败的画面,该广告违反了《广播电视广告播放管理暂行办法》第六条“广播电视广告应当维护国家尊严和利益,尊重祖国传统文化”和第七条“不得含有……亵渎民族风俗习惯的内容”的规定。国家广电总局向各省、自治区、直辖市广播影视局(厅)和中央电视台发出《关于立即停止播放“恐惧斗室”广告片的通知》。
立邦漆一则名为“龙篇”广告作品画面:在一个中国古典式的亭子的两根立柱上各盘着一条巨龙,左立柱由于没有涂立邦漆,色彩黯淡,表面粗糙,巨龙仍得以紧紧攀附在柱子上;右立柱由于涂了立邦漆,色彩鲜艳,表面光滑,使得巨龙都滑落在地。广告要表达的是其高品质的产品,但是却忽视了目标受众的民族文化。众所周知,在中华传统文化中,我们中国人自豪的称自己是“龙的传人”,“龙”成了中华民族的图腾,是中华民族精神的象征,是华夏民族顶礼膜拜的神圣象征。这则广告严重伤害了中国人的民族自尊心,引起国人的愤怒。
由于宗教信仰不同,不同国家对不同广告表现和不同商品持有不同态度。伴随着美国骆驼牌香烟吹遍全球的广告名言:“为了得到一支‘骆驼’香烟,我愿意走一里路。”出现的广告画面:在泰国佛殿前,一位瘾君子坐在椅子上,翘着二郎腿,露出了鞋底的破洞。其寓意为烟民为了买到骆驼烟,宁愿多走一里路,久而久之,鞋底就磨穿了。这则广告在美国本土,以它的幽默赢得了美国的观众,但在佛教盛行的泰国,佛庙是至尊的圣地,教民认为是亵渎佛祖,从而激起了教民的愤怒。
语言既是文化的一部分,又是文化的载体。如果某一民族的人们不了解某一特定民族的文化因素,则不可能进行有效的交际。因此,正如赵贤州先生所说的:“跨文化交际之所以成为可能,正是人类享有某些共同的文化信息;而跨文化交际之所以产生某些偏差,是因为双方不能共享另一些有差异的文化信息”。东西方在价值观、民族心理和审美情趣等方面的千差万别是中西文化差异中最隐蔽的一部分,也是文化交流过程中最易造成冲突的原因。广告创作一定要遵从受众民族的文化特色和价值观念,尽力消除文化差异对广告宣传的负面影响,从中西方文化中找到人们对某一事物认识的契合点,只有定位和创意都顺应文化传统与风情习俗的广告才能打动目标受众,达到广告的真正目的。
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